Note: Al Jazeera is withholding some details of interviewees, such as surnames, to protect their identities.

Douankara, Mauritania – One evening in late March, 75-year-old Moctar gathered with his family and friends in Sondaje, a village in northern Mali, to plan their escape. For months, homes had been raided by rival gun-toting warring groups who accused various villagers of collaborating with their enemies. Two of Moctar’s cousins were killed in one such attack. Then one group issued an ultimatum.

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“The men came on about 30 motorbikes, observed the evening prayers with us in the mosque and then told us we had 72 hours to leave the village,”…